Activist‐led Education and Egalitarian Social Change☆

Economic inequality is widely regarded as one of the most important issues our time. Extreme economic disparities destabilize democracy—as richest exert increasing control over political outcomes—and lead to forms social stratification which take a severe toll on mental wellbeing worst-off. also plays key role in driving ongoing ecological catastrophe, spending habits wealthiest tend be concentrated carbon-intensive activities, and limits opportunities access meaningful work best health educational resources few.11 Martin Gilens, Affluence Influence: Inequality Political Power America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012); Thomas Piketty, Capital Twenty-First Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard 2014); Richard Wilkinson Kate Pickett, The Inner Level: How More Equal Societies Reduce Stress, Restore Sanity Improve Everyone’s Well-being (London: Penguin, 2018). Some philosophers have recently proposed radically reshaping existing basic structure liberal democracies way secure substantial increases political, social, equality for all citizens. William Edmundson David Schweickart, example, defended systems market socialism, firms make up “commanding heights” economy are democratically controlled by their workers either directly owned them or leased state. And Alan others property-owning democracy, state works ensure roughly equal private ownership capital among its citizens.22 Edmundson, John Rawls: Reticent Socialist (Cambridge: Cambridge 2017); O’Neill Thad Williamson, Property-Owning Democracy: Rawls Beyond (Oxford: Blackwell, After Capitalism, 2nd edn (Plymouth: Rowman Littlefield, 2011); Thomas, Republic Equals: Predistribution Democracy Oxford 2017). Rather than aims can realized immediately under present conditions, however, both these proposals clearly constitute long- medium-term goals. They call fundamental transformation many institutions, passing into law novel contentious public policies. currently very low profile demos institutional alternatives contemporary neoliberal capitalism must raised significantly. And, likely, some understandings beliefs shared citizens—on like appropriate reach government legitimate entitlements citizenship—must altered. In short, instituting reform kind favored egalitarian requires radical change.33 For definition change “the significant alteration cultural patterns,” see Charles L. Harper Kevin T. Leicht, Exploring Social Change: World, 7th Routledge, 2019), p. 5. Cf. Archon Fung, “Four levels power: conception enable liberation,” Journal Philosophy, 28 (2020), 131–57. This raises an question proponents alternative schemes: how egalitarians begin realize large-scale changes from where they now? Which action ought undertaken conditions order increase likelihood long-term goals eventually being implemented, persisting time? These questions, concerning not why might undesirable, what more just look like, but rather done about this we now, often thought blind-spot thought.44 O’Neill, “Survey article: philosophy policy after Piketty,” 25 (2017), 343–75, at 370; Miriam Ronzoni, “How democrats may become reluctant radicals: Piketty's Wolfgang Streeck's Buying Time,” European Theory, 17 (2018), 118–27, 125. Clearly, beginning fill lacuna only pressing philosophical task, it remains paramount importance that orientation offer extends beyond principles includes broadly.55 Stuart White, “Inequality fate,” Boston Review, Nov. 9, 2015, . As contribution article, I account short-term greater be. claim strengthening reflective capacity—citizens’ ability impose temporary level distance commitments, consider them, evaluate origins validity—ought aim politics conditions. then propose activist-led education programs desirable means deliver end strengthened capacity. Where provides plentiful informational practice deploying one’s capacity, emphasizes encourages intellectual humility, seems well placed help bring aim. Activist-led commonly subject term indoctrination worry, try show there good grounds concluding advance further study delicate balancing ends permissible categorically unachievable, avoidable objectors press. argument thus presumptive considering proliferation suitably organized component broader strategy change. fleshing out ways tendency misjudge represents constraint feasibility realizing schemes. Section II, defend capacity goal action, overcome tendency. III introduces education, detailing number historical instances it, makes case that—if meets three conditions—the strengthen IV responds concern liable result indoctrination. conclude noting need empirical research other activist practices. Participation life making whole series judgments: judgments happening why, constraints collectively operate under, consequences given course likely be, necessary do (or should been done) this. frequently incredibly difficult well, because, individuals, decision-making area lives evaluation judgment required, individuals prioritize. compounded fact that, Fabienne Peter notes, almost always made situations huge uncertainty: uncertainty circumstances actually find ourselves outcome various available courses be.66 Peter, "The good, bad, uncertain: intentional normative uncertainty," Ethical Theory Moral Practice, 21 57–70. Sometimes, perhaps even time, clear answers above questions simply aren’t forthcoming, yet still called for. deal with uncertainty, actors use simplifying frames orient themselves world aid decision-making. cognitive frames, Kinder Sanders put “order give meaning parade events” “witness life.”77 Donald R. Lynn M. Sanders, Divided color:Racial Politics Democratic Ideals (Chicago: Chicago 1996), 39. guide putting emphasis certain aspects world—marking particularly salient features—and de-emphasizing others. Such moments crisis, when confusion situations, new force re-evaluate prior judgment. Undoubtedly, utilization perennial feature life; can, does, But also, want here, pronounced affairs. occurs simplification offered frame constitutes over-simplification: adoption causes agents miss information would alter made. Let’s subset citizenry reasonably come support constituency. constituency smaller total citizens polity, excluding, committed right-libertarians, who materially benefit extreme disparities. larger current supporters participants organizations fighting equality. It includes, those stand society, currently, reason another, no settled ideological convictions desirability society. Following Ben Laurence, say willing voluntarily pursue such change, “might realistically be” motivated so.88 “The agent change,” 355–77, 362. Exactly large is, course, matter dispute, detain us here. worth known so-called “ideological innocence” many, most, democracies, 99 Nathan P. Kalmoe, Neither Liberal nor Conservative: Ideological Innocence American Public widespread negative effects inequality, potentially indeed. Perhaps vast majority lack convictions, potential economic, arguably allow better satisfy needs interests. Regardless precise size settled, let capture subsection national population less entire citizenry, nonetheless aligned parties, trade unions, movements My members affairs apply world.1010 Is “tendency misjudge” polite, fundamentally similar, saying displaying stupidity? “stupidity” indeed sometimes used mean something akin “displaying misjudge.” However, stick throughout phrase “misjudgment,” because pass capacities person referring instance misjudgment does not. “Stupidity” common parlance refers broad range vices (encompassing things confident ignorance, failures attention, self-control) unhelpfully emotionally charged somewhat imprecise. Misjudgment, contrast, picks much clearer phenomenon: application problematically over-simplifying thought. thanks anonymous referee prompting me clarify point. Four examples kinds mind will out. First, wedded meritocracy frame, believe hard biggest factor success.1111 Daniel Markovits, Meritocracy Trap: America's Foundational Myth Feeds Inequality, Dismantles Middle Class, Devours Elite (New York: Penguin Random House, 2019). acknowledge recognize structural barriers face overcoming disadvantage. There body scientific reveals stark obstacles advancement, privilege relatively easily.1212 Sam Friedman Laurison, Class Ceiling: Why Pays Be Privileged (Bristol: Policy 2020). Yet subscribing instead succeed congratulated working failed neglected requisite work, lacked first place. encourage status quo broadly and, consequently, receptive calls participate themselves. Similarly, subscribe fiscal profligacy tending amounts welfare services unsustainable crisis. Fearing later indebtedness, think state’s finances household’s. Viewing through lens commits view economics economists reject unrealistic tends rule impossible unwise perfectly feasible, using borrowing invest grow economy.1313 Mark Blyth, Austerity: History Dangerous Idea 2015). Adopting citizens, dramatically increased spending, financial politically coherent legitimate. cause withdraw activity sense despondency, confusion, powerlessness. could sincerity corporations, agents, regardless actual agenda, side advancing interests, privileged few. Because stripes pay lip service aim—even whose agenda systematically advances interests expense great majority—applying insufficiently discerning intentions actors, incorrectly statements face-value. famous prescient analysis, Frank documents Republican politicians US successfully presented party voice persecuted people, determined tackle self-serving elite, despite power material group Americans.1414 Frank, What's Matter Kansas? Conservatives Won Heart Metropolitan Books, 2004). propensity assume earnestness disingenuous claims electoral success forces opposed Lastly, recent history indicates (but professional politicians, advisors, activists) were continue fair-play frame. expect politics, including opponents, abide written unwritten procedural norms competition democracies. (and remain) unprepared respond tactics right-wing populists. Jan-Werner Müller draws attention he describes brazen "colonization state" associated populist power, place loyalists previously nonpartisan bureaucratic, judicial, media positions, laws reduce opposition cement own power.1515 Müller, What Populism? 2017), 44. prevents actions prepared flexible responses, underestimate opponents. competition, anti-egalitarian policies equality, latter foresight populists act. list misjudgments resulting oversimplifying far exhaustive (the conspiracy theories partly shape popular thinking misleading frames). point arena Gilabert Lawford-Smith “soft constraints” transformative democracy socialism.1616 Pablo Holly Lawford-Smith, “Political feasibility: conceptual exploration,” Studies, 60 (2012), 809–25, 813. ideal schemes certainly possible implementation doesn’t appear incompatible permanent features collective life, nature human psychology. existence soft constraint, as, case, misjudge, renders immediate realization highly unlikely. fight each cases discussed above, misinterpret reality perpetuation inequality. contributes continued dominance hierarchies general resilience quo. To clear, here singularly responsible difficulties A exclusive source inegalitarian quo, if lessening enough itself. thing, dissipate provided removed. advanced capitalist nations, successful institutionalization winning retaining) government. so, resist—among obstacles—the influence powerful employers owners oppose donations, lobbying, threat flight strike.1717 Christiano, “Money politics,” Estlund (ed.), Handbook Philosophy 2012), pp. 241–60. Lessening remove obstacle, automatically translate coming possess deeply rooted commitments required change.1818 See, e.g., discussion “militant minority” change; Micah Uetricht Barry Eidlin, “US union revitalization missing 'militant minority,'” Labor Studies Journal, 44 (2019), 36–59. parties play maintaining enhancing commitment, Lea Ypi, commitment value partisanship,” Science 110 (2016), 601–13. Much science usually termed critical juncture, path-dependent continuity stability institutions temporarily halted, window opportunity divergence opens up. choices flux “establish directions foreclose shapes years come.”1919 Ruth Berins Collier Collier, Shaping Arena: Critical Junctures, Movement, Regime Dynamics Latin 1991), 27. reason, implausible occur absent crisis kind. objective subjective) absence juncture serious prospects Despite responsible, remains, suggest, able confront set firm moral militant minority, advantage arrives. danger heightened flux, groups over-eagerness rashness ineffectual too short-termist focus. Absent arena, discern wisest crucial moments? refrain drawn appealing defenses old attempt shore wake distinguish between sincere advocates opportunists? stressing relative intellectualist occurs; prevalence constraints. points removing Critics contend preferable focus energy removal outlined suggest different obstacle “key” maximally unlock possibilities transformation. made, welcome contributions task mapping Even prefer emphasize ultimately central pushed, deny entirely simultaneous tackling constraint. argued misjudge—whether part section inactive, active—is enables achievement preferred goals? section, answer lies cultivating proceed final half article concrete suggestion via programs. define critically reflect validity.2020 Stephen Macedo, Virtues: Citizenship, Virtue, Community Constitutionalism Clarendon 1990), 269. Christman, "Autonomy, self-knowledge, legitimacy," Christman Joel Anderson (eds), Autonomy Challenges Liberalism: New Essays 2005), 330–57, 331. seeking cultivate priority change? resistant dynamics seek misjudgment. Central plucked thin air: heavily influenced contingent factors. At least two sources frame-inculcation seem emphasize. established elites Allen Buchanan has “produce distortions free exchange biases identification framing issues” direct indirect news media.2121 Buchanan, liberalism epistemology,” Affairs, 32 (2004), 95–130, 128. scientists describe “framing effects,” wherein communications citizens’ thought.2222 Dennis Chong James N. Druckman, “Framing theory,” Annual Review Science, 10 (2007), 103–26. words, typically pick reinforced exposure content found media. Arguably, revelations online “microtargeting” reinforce preferences.2323 related discussion, Arthur Beckman, marketing autonomy,” 26 24–46, 35. Second, once sufficient regularly friends, family, colleagues considerably adopt too, socialization.2424 Maria Teresa Grasso, Farrall, Emily Gray, et al., “Thatcher’s children, Blair’s babies, socialization trickle-down change: age, period cohort analysis,” British 49 17–36. note detrimental manipulation cluster around adults already economically, politically, socially disadvantaged, pedagogy availa